strategicandHRissuesthroughacommonlanguage.Whatisacompetencymodel?Organizationsadoptingacompetencyapproachmustcreateorutilizeacompetencymodel,atminimumasimplelistorcatalogue,specifyingdesirablecompetencies.ThestructureofthismodelmustsupporttheuseofcompetenciesacrosstheselectedHRfunctions.ModelsdesignedforselectionandeducationalpurposesusuallydescribetechnicalcompetenciesintermsoftheirantecedentskigicalApproach-(Behaviouralrepertoires)InDavidMcClelland,workingintheeducationalfieldintheUS,wroteapapersuggestingthatpersonalcompetencies,whichhedefinedasmotivesandpersonalitytraits,areabettermeansofpredictingoccupationalsuccessthantraditionalpsychometricssuchasIQandaptitudetests.McClelland'sworkwastobeenormouslyinfluential.Ofparticularinterestwastheideathatthefactorsorinputsassociatedwithindividualsuccesscouldbeidentified,andthentaughttoothers.McClellandandBoyatzis()developedamethodologyforidentifyingcompetencies,basedontheskilledbehaviouralrepertoiresofrecognisedstarperformerswithinparticularorganisations.Theydefinedcompetenciesas"agenericbodyofknowledge,motives,traits,selfimagesandsocialrolesandskillsthatarecausallyrelatedtosuperiororeffectiveperformanceinthejob."(p.,italicsadded)..TheBusinessApproach(Organisationalcompetenciesforcompetitiveadvantage)Theconceptofcompetencieswastakenupbybusinessstrategistsinthelates.HamelandPrahalad()advancedtheideaof"CoreCompetencies"and"Capabilities".Theirdefinitionofcorecompetenciesasthe"collectivelearning"oftheorganizationhasbeenmuchcited,andcontributestothecurrentinterestin"competencies"(Shipmannetal.,).ThusSparrow()suggeststhatpractitionersshouldaimatdefining"higherlevel"futureorientedorganisationalcompetencies.WhatarethepotentialbenefitsoftheCompetencyapproach?Performancebenefitsarepromisedbythevariousdefinitionswhichincludethecausalorinstrumentalrelationshipofcompetenciesandjobperformance(Boyatzis)andcompetenciesandorganisationalperformance.(Organ,;Hamel&Prahalad,).Inaddition,Sparrow()hasobservedthatthecompetencyliteratureincludesahugerangeofclaimedbenefitsspecifictoHRprocessesinorganisations.Insummary,theseare:•improvedrecruitmentandselectionpracticesthroughafocusonrequiredcompetencies;•improvedindividual,organisationalandcareerdevelopmentprogrammes;•improvedperformancemanagementprocessesduetoimprovedassessment;andlastly•improvedcommunicationonstrategicandHRissuesthroughacommonlanguage.Whatisacompetencymodel?Organizationsadoptingacompetencyapproachmustcreateorutilizeacompetencymodel,atminimumasimplelistorcatalogue,specifyingdesirablecompetencies.ThestructureofthismodelmustsupporttheuseofcompetenciesacrosstheselectedHRfunctions.Modelsdesignedforselectionandeducationalpurposesusuallydescribetechnicalcompetenciesintermsoftheirantecedentski广泛危险以至于它们不被人们认为是有关。胜任特征可以被简单定义,作为一个内容提要加上一点行为例子,或者它们可以被设计用于满足多层次细节和掌握。同时,复杂模型允许更精确要求和评估交流,它们可以变成一个管理责任。事实上,普遍或通用途径是最一般被采用。作为一个例子,Tett等()企图鉴定和验证一个“管理能力高度紧张空间分类法”。很多专有通用胜任力目录,也与Stuart()普遍胜任特征相一致,代表性包括管理和OCB因素。这些胜任特征中很多都被广泛定义以至于它们包括了一个个性因素,动机和认知能力混合(Bartram,)。在一个近期国际性调查中,在拥有胜任特征目录大型公司中,有将近一半公司在用有通用胜任特征函数库专有软件(Metagroup,)。但是一个规格适合所有通用胜任特征途径是不太可能适合致力于不同设置、不同产品和不同顾客组织(Chiabaru,)。正如Stuart()提到,胜任力模型越简单越普遍,个人水平感知相关性越低。b.效标效度—胜任特征可以被精确测量吗?一个有关问题是很多胜任特征,尤其是那些与周边绩效有关,被广泛定义,并且几乎没有绩效指标。在这种情况下不见得精确评估是合理。这对组织公平是有含义(Colquitt等),以及感觉组织支持(Rhoades&Eisemberger)影响员工对组织承诺。除了测量标准不足,胜任特征通常用自己或管理人评价来评估,有时候也会是同事之间。因此,胜任特征评定有可能遭受相同可靠性问题,比如评定人偏见,广泛文献记录为了一般绩效评估(Fletcher,)。然而胜任特征精确测量是一个关键问题,尤其是当评估被用于付钱绩效计划。组织一个主要前职业是精确区别不同等级成功,以便确保“顶尖人才”感到值得并且得到适当奖励。例如,Hunter等()发现在复杂任务中,比如职业服务,个人产出可以被一个因素改变多达比在最好和最差执行者之间。表.一个使用了Stuart()结构胜任力模化选择图解定义简单复杂胜任特征通用象限高水平容易使用可能不被看作是相关允许任务间比较评估较少准确可以购买现货象限高水平复合结构,可能难使用与任务更相关允许任务间比较评估更精确可定制解决方案特殊象限任务特殊/技术化容易使用没有任务/组织间比较评估精确可定制解决方案象限任务特殊/技术化多层次,复合结构,难使用没有任务/组织间比较评估精确可定制解决方案.胜任力模型确认第二个主要问题是组织应用胜任力模型方法;即没有确认就采用(Shippman等,)。确认是很重要,因为胜任特征描述了标准行为,即组织希望提升和发展来提高组织绩效行为。.预测效度—改进胜任特征能预测改进个人工作绩效或改进组织绩效吗?第三个主要问题是缺乏采用胜任力途径所得结果利益证据。所有胜任力主动性潜在假设是个人技能发展,以特殊行为作为例证,会导致工作绩效以及组织绩效好转。Barrett和Depinet()回顾,关于研究胜任力测量为McClelland()断言,即胜任特征相对于传统心智能力心理计量测验是更好工作绩效预测工具,提供了很少经验上支持。后来,Laber和O’Connor()注重胜任力模型效能实证研究缺乏。我们对于文献检索揭示只有少量研究调查胜任特征和客观工作绩效之间联系,四年以后留下了基本不变情况。关于胜任力运动众多批评之一是胜任力和工作绩效隐含混乱。我们认为这个混换已经出现了,通过和胜任力运动有联系语言;行为、知识和人格特质,即工作输入以及结果或输出,和客观工作绩效混乱。因此,胜任特征被行为“绩效”评估并认为是标准胜任力。阐述这个混乱,Campbell(引用Bartram,,p.)陈述“绩效是行为。是一些人们做并反映在人们行动中东西„绩效不是行动结果;它是行动本身(见Hackett,)。这种对术语混淆造成了胜任力模型应用中一个固有循环。胜任特征被鉴别通过使用各种各样信息收集方法,行为标准被定义,然后缺乏对工作输出或工作绩效客观测量,对这些行为事件主观评估被假设与工作绩效相当,并且确认胜任力概念自身。作为说明,Mayer()报告了一个研究,检查健康劳动力胜任特征是否可以预测基本服务绩效。他测量自我评估核心胜任力等级和自我评估服务绩效之间关系,即在美国一个大城市卫生部,定义为公共健康工作任务绩效频率。他发现,胜任水平和本质上服务绩效输入只有一个适度联系。Hunter和Schmidt()指出OCBs和对个人工作绩效以客观输出为基础测量之间相关是很少。然而,当监察员估计工作绩效时,在OCBs评定等级和他们对整体工作绩效主观评定等级之间有很高相关。他们指出,这是因为监察人宽容差任务绩效出现在有高水平OCBs人身上。因此,任何协会用胜任特征和工作绩效都可能会由于监察员给出对OCBs衡量而改变(Johnson,)。gicalApproach-(Behaviouralrepertoires)InDavidMcClelland,workingintheeducationalfieldintheUS,wroteapapersuggestingthatpersonalcompetencies,whichhedefinedasmotivesandpersonalitytraits,areabettermeansofpredictingoccupationalsuccessthantraditionalpsychometricssuchasIQandaptitudetests.McClelland'sworkwastobeenormouslyinfluential.Ofparticularinterestwastheideathatthefactorsorinputsassociatedwithindividu中文字外文文献:ConfoundedbyCompetencies?AnEvaluationoftheEvolutionandUseofCompetencyModelsLeanneH.MarkusPerformanceGroupInternationalLtd.,AucklandHelenaD.Cooper-ThomasDepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofAucklandKeithN.AllpressCentranumLtd.,AucklandOverthelasttenyearstherehasbeenaworld-wideexpansionintheuseofcompetencymodelsasamajorunderpinningofHumanResources(HR)strategy.Theuseofthecompetencyapproachispromotedbyconsultantsandsoftwarevendorsonthebasisthatthiswillimprovebothindividualjobperformanceandorganizationaleffectiveness.Yetthereisasubstantial,andlargelyunquestioned,gapbetweenthemanyclaimsandtheactualbenefitsmeasurablydeliveredbycompetencyinitiatives.IndustrialandOrganizational(I/O)Psychologistsareofteninvolvedindevelopingandimplementingcompetencymodels,yetthereislittleresearchvalidatingtheapproach.Asscientist-practitioners,weshouldbeconcernedaboutthis.Thisarticlewillreviewthetheoreticalperspectivesthathaveinformedthecompetencymovement,reviewourexperienceoftheuseofcompetencymodelsinNewZealand,andcriticallyexaminetheassumptionsthatunderpintheiruse.Theresearchthatexistsisreviewedwithparticularreferencetotheoutcomemeasuresusedtosubstantiatethevalueofcompetencymodels.FinallyweidentifyvariousresearchareasandquestionsthatshouldclearlybeinvestigatedbyI/Opsychologistsiftheyaretobeinvolvedinthepromotion,developmentandimplementationofcompetencymodelsinanorganizationalsetting.Whatisacompetency?ThreemainapproachesThenumerouspublisheddefinitionscanbegroupedintothreedistinctapproaches:educationalstandards,behavioralrepertoires,andorganizationalcompetencies..TheEducationalApproach(Thedevelopmentofskills,achievementofstandards,awardofcredentials)Themodemcompetencymovementoriginatedfromtheeducationaldiscipline.IntheUS'competencies'werebasedonfunctionalroleanalysisanddescribedeitherroleoutcomes,orknowledge,skillsandattitudes,orboth,requiredforroleperformance,andassessedbyacriterion,usuallyabehaviouralstandard.IntheUK,industrybodiesespeciallythoserequiringtradesandtechnicalskills,developedstandardsofoccupationalcompetencebasedonexpectedworkoutcomes(Fletcher,).A'competence'wasdefinednarrowlyasanaction,behaviouroroutcometobedemonstrated,oraminimumstandard,withdifferentlevelsofmasterydefinedbydifferentstatements(Bourkeetal.,,Elam,)..ThePsychologicalApproach-(Behaviouralrepertoires)InDavidMcClelland,workingintheeducationalfieldintheUS,wroteapapersuggestingthatpersonalcompetencies,whichhedefinedasmotivesandpersonalitytraits,areabettermeansofpredictingoccupationalsuccessthantraditionalpsychometricssuchasIQandaptitudetests.McClelland'sworkwastobeenormouslyinfluential.Ofparticularinterestwastheideathatthefactorsorinputsassociatedwithindividualsuccesscouldbeidentified,andthentaughttoothers.McClellandandBoyatzis()developedamethodologyforidentifyingcompetencies,basedontheskilledbehaviouralrepertoiresofrecognisedstarperformerswithinparticularorganisations.Theydefinedcompetenciesas"agenericbodyofknowledge,motives,traits,selfimagesandsocialrolesandskillsthatarecausallyrelatedtosuperiororeffectiveperformanceinthejob."(p.,italicsadded)..TheBusinessApproach(Organisationalcompetenciesforcompetitiveadvantage)Theconceptofcompetencieswastakenupbybusinessstrategistsinthelates.HamelandPrahalad()advancedtheideaof"CoreCompetencies"and"Capabilities".Theirdefinitionofcorecompetenciesasthe"collectivelearning"oftheorganizationhasbeenmuchcited,andcontributestothecurrentinterestin"competencies"(Shipmannetal.,).ThusSparrow()suggeststhatpractitionersshouldaimatdefining"higherlevel"futureorientedorganisationalcompetencies.WhatarethepotentialbenefitsoftheCompetencyapproach?Performancebenefitsarepromisedbythevariousdefinitionswhichincludethecausalorinstrumentalrelationshipofcompetenciesandjobperformance(Boyatzis)andcompetenciesandorganisationalperformance.(Organ,;Hamel&Prahalad,).Inaddition,Sparrow()hasobser 中文5950字外文文献:ConfoundedbyCompetencies?AnEvaluationoftheEvolutionandUseofCompetencyModelsLeanneH.MarkusPerformanceGroupInternationalLtd.,AucklandHelenaD.Cooper-ThomasDepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofAucklandKeithN.AllpressCentranumLtd.,AucklandOverthelasttenyearstherehasbeenaworld-wideexpansionintheuseofcompetencymodelsasamajorunderpinningofHumanReso